The Mongol Empire is often viewed as a ruthless force that decimated civilizations across Eurasia. However, this nomadic group, which emerged from the vast steppes of Mongolia, ultimately established the largest contiguous empire in history.

Once they consolidated power, the Mongols recognized that fostering international trade, sharing knowledge, and promoting religious tolerance were more effective means of influence than mere military might. This led to a period known as the Pax Mongolica, which spanned from the mid-13th to the mid-14th century, characterized by relative peace across Eurasia. The term is reminiscent of the Pax Romana, referring to the peace experienced during the height of the Roman Empire.

The Pax Mongolica laid the groundwork for globalization. Roger Bacon, a 13th-century English scholar, noted that the Mongols triumphed not solely through military strength but also through scientific advancement. Below, we explore five key advancements during this era that significantly impacted the course of human development in subsequent centuries.

# Advancements in Paper Currency

The first paper currency was introduced in China during the Tang dynasty in the 7th century CE, gaining traction during the 11th century Song dynasty, although it remained largely unutilized.

The Mongol Empire popularized paper money across Eurasia. Marco Polo, a 13th-century traveler to Kublai Khan’s court, played a crucial role in introducing this concept to Europe. Although the Mongols were not primarily a trade-focused society, they understood that commerce was vital for generating revenue. By standardizing trade through paper currency, they enhanced safety and efficiency.

Mongol banknotes were accepted throughout their vast empire, while local currencies still held value.

> “To refuse it (the banknote) would be to incur the death penalty.” — Marco Polo

The introduction of paper currency also brought the possibility of declaring bankruptcy, allowing merchants to avoid debt repayment twice in their lifetime, with severe consequences for a third failure. The use of paper money persisted for nearly 150 years, only diminishing with the decline of the Mongol Empire. The idea of a global currency was indeed ahead of its time.

# Transforming Trade and Travel

The Silk Road, connecting China to Europe through India, Persia, and the Middle East, remains the oldest active international trade route. While trade along this route had existed since the 2nd century CE, the Mongols unified it under one governance. This unprecedented centralized system facilitated commerce across a vast region, proving to be more influential than their military campaigns.

During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols established a sophisticated international trading framework, ensuring merchants were protected and supplies were readily available along trade routes. Marco Polo described these rest stops as luxurious, featuring silk linens and spacious accommodations.

Mongol authorities issued an early form of passport, known as the paiza, to merchants and travelers. This document guaranteed safety, hospitality, and tax exemptions across the empire, allowing for a level of travel and trade that remains remarkable even today.

Additionally, the Mongols expanded maritime trade in Southeast Asia, India, and Persia following their conquest of the Song dynasty. They provided protection for sea merchants during a time when piracy was rampant. Florentine merchant Francesco Pegolotti noted that routes to China were “perfectly safe, whether by day or night.”

# Promoting Religious Tolerance

> “The religion of every man must be left to the conviction and conscience of every man; and it is the right of every man to exercise it as they may dictate.” — James Madison

Six centuries before James Madison articulated the concept of religious freedom, Genghis Khan, an illiterate nomad from Mongolia, decreed similar principles. Despite his devotion to Tengri, the god of the eternal blue sky, Genghis surrounded himself with followers of various faiths, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Taoism. He intervened whenever anyone’s right to practice their religion was infringed upon. His son, Ogedei, established a capital at Karakorum, which featured churches, mosques, and temples, fostering an environment of religious acceptance.

While not all successors of Genghis Khan exhibited the same level of tolerance, many upheld the principle that a person's beliefs should not hinder their potential or opportunities for advancement. As long as no one sought to impose their beliefs on the Mongol way of life, they exhibited a remarkable degree of acceptance towards various faiths in Eurasia.

# Global Recruitment Based on Talent

> “The artists in China and Paris vied with each other in the service of the great Khan.” — Edward Gibbon

The Mongols championed meritocracy, with Genghis Khan’s reforms prioritizing loyalty and skill over noble lineage. Given their nomadic background, the Mongols recognized the need to recruit talent from across the globe. They ensured that doctors, craftsmen, religious leaders, philosophers, engineers, and architects were protected within their territories.

In an era where specialized skills were often localized, the Mongols encouraged global knowledge sharing, employing Persian mathematicians in China and relocating Chinese doctors to Persia. This facilitated the flow of knowledge and skill development across Eurasia.

Under Kublai Khan, minimum qualifications for various professions were established, ensuring a standard for services offered. The Mongols were wary of any single ethnic group monopolizing administrative roles, opting instead for a diverse recruitment strategy that included Tajiks, Arabs, Persians, and others.

China, being the most populous nation in the empire, had a bureaucratic system that suffered from corruption due to lack of official salaries. The Mongols instituted a salary system for all positions, replacing the previously Chinese-dominated approach with a diverse merit-based one. This innovative shift would not be fully recognized until the 20th century.

# Global Scientific Knowledge Exchange

Before the Mongol conquest, scientific knowledge was often tightly controlled. For instance, while the Arabs learned papermaking from captured Chinese artisans in 752 CE, Europe was slow to adopt this technology. Under Mongol rule, papermaking flourished and became increasingly mechanized. Government documents transitioned from traditional materials like vellum and silk to paper, enhancing literacy across the region.

Mongols facilitated the exchange of medical knowledge by deploying doctors from different cultures across their empire. Kublai Khan hired physicians from India, Persia, and Western Europe, leading to significant advancements such as the introduction of acupuncture to the Middle East and the practice of dissection in China. He also established a Western medicine institution with the assistance of European monks, improving public health.

The transfer of silk production, a closely guarded Chinese secret, to Europe was another significant achievement. Additionally, the Mongols learned about gunpowder from the Chinese, changing warfare dynamics along the Silk Roads.

The Pax Mongolica also saw the development of the Yam, the largest transnational postal system of its time, and advancements in cartography that sparked the age of exploration.

Unlike other empires, the Mongols respected the customs of the peoples they conquered, focusing on improving the lands rather than imposing their own culture.

One of the most notable contributions of the Mongol Empire was the popularization of papermaking, which revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge worldwide.

# References 1. Jack Weatherford (2004) Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Crown Publishers. 2. Jack Weatherford (2016) Genghis Khan and the Quest for God: How the World’s Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom. Viking. 3. John Man (2014) Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, his heirs and the founding of modern China. 4. Thomas T. Allsen. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization Cambridge University Press; March 25, 2004). 5. Michael Prawdin. The Mongol Empire: its rise and legacy. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2006.